R E S T O R I N G T H E R U I N
Sources / Bibliography / Photos
Αρχ. Δελτ., Αρχαιολογικό Δελτίο. AA, Archäologischer Anzeiger. AJA, American Journal of Archaeology. AM, Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Athenische Abteilung. BCH, Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique. Hesperia, Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens. Jdl, Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts- JHS, Journal of Hellenic Studies. Mdl, Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts.
G. Beckel, Akropolisfragen, Χαριστήριον εις A. K. Ορλάνδον, t. 3,1967-68, 329.
E. Berger (επιμελ.), Parthenon-Kongress, Basel 1982, Mainz 1984.
C. Bötticher, Bericht über die Untersuchungen auf der Akropolis von Athen im Frühjahre 1862, Berlin 1863.
I. Beyer, Die Reliefgiebel des Alten Athena-Tempels der Akropolis. AA 1974, 639-651.
I. Beyer, Die Datierung der großen Reliefgiebel des Alten Athenatempels der Akropolis. A 1977, 44-74.
J. S. Boersma, Athenian Building Policy from 561-0 to 405-4 B.C., Groningen 1970.
J. A. Bundgaard, The Parthenon and the Mycenean city on the Heights, Copenhagen, 1976.
E. Buschor, Burglöwen, AM 47,1922, 92-105 (βλ. κ.α. τ.ιδ. 53-60 και 106-109).
E. Buschor, Die Tonddächer der Akropolis, Berlin-Leipzig, 1929-1933.
W. B. Dinsmoor, Supplementary Excavation at the Entrance of the Acropolis, 7925, AJA 33, 1929, 101-102.
W. B. Dinsmoor, The Burning of the Opisthodomos at Athens, AJA 36, 1932, 143-172, 307-326.
http://www.eie.gr/
W. B. Dinsmoor, The Date of the Older Parthenon, AJA 38,1934, 408- 438.
W. B. Dinsmoor, The Hekatompedon on the Athenian Akropolis, AJA 51,1947, 109-151.
W. B. Dinsmoor, The Architecture of Ancient Greece, London, 1950.
W. Dörpfeld, Der Alte Athenatempel auf der Akropolis zu Athen, AM 10, 1885, 275-277; 11, 1886, 337-351; 12, 1887, 25-61, 190-211; 15, 1890, 153-187; 22, 1897, 159-178.
http://www.yppo.gr/
W. Dörpfeld, Die Zeit des älteren Parthenon, AM 27, 1902, 379-416.
W. Dörpfeld, Das Hekatompedon in Athen, Jdl 34, 1919, 1-40.
W. Dörpfeld, Parthenon I, II, III, AJA 39,1935, 497-507.
H. Drerup, Parthenon und Vorparthenon - Zum Stand der Kontroverse, Antike Kunst, 1981, 21-38.
B. Graef -E. Langlotz, Die antiken Vasen von der Akropolis zu Athen, Berlin 1925 (I), 1933 (II).
G. Gruben, Die Tempel der Griechen, München 1976, 163-178.
http://users.sch.gr/izogakis
R. Heberdey, Altattische Porosskulptur, Wien 1919.
C. J. Herington, Athena Parthenos and Athena Polios, Manchester 1955.
A. Hess, Der Opisthodom als Tresor und die Akropolistopographie, Klio 28, 1935, 21-84.
B. H. Hill, The Older Parthenon, AJA 16, 1912, 556.
L. B. Holland, Erechtheum Papers, AJA 28, 1924, 1-23, 142-169, 402-434.
Σπ. Ιακωβίδης, Η μυκηναϊκή Ακρόπολη των Αθηνών, Αθήναι 1962.
O. Jahn - A. Michaelis, Arx Athenarum a Pausania descripta, Bonn 1901.
K. Jeppesen, The Theory of the Alternative Erechtheion, Aarhus 1987.
W. Judeich, Topographic von Athen, München 1931.
Π. Καββαδία - G. Kawerau, Η ανασκαφή της Ακροπόλεως, Αθήναι 1907.
Α. Καλογεροπούλου - Μ. Φιλίπ-Προύνη, Αρχαιολογική εφημερίς, Ερευτήριον πρώτης και δευτέρας περιόδου 1837-1874, τομ. Α, Αθήναι 1973.
Α. Κόκκου, Η μέριμνα για τις αρχαιότητες και τα πρώτα μνημεία, Αθήναι 1977.
Ν. Κοντολέων, Το Ερεχθείον ως οικοδόμημα χθονίας λατρείας, Αθήναι 1949.
Μ. Κορρές - Χ. Μπούρας, Μελέτη αποκαταστάσεως του Παρθενώνος, Αθήναι 1983.
M. Korres, Wilhelm Dörpfelds Forschungen zum Vorparthenon und Parthenon, AM 108, 1993, 59-78.
Β. Λαμπρινουδάκης, Οικοδομικά προγράμματα στην αρχαία Αθήνα, Αθήνα 1983.
W. M. Leake, The Topography of Athens, London 1821 (1st ed.), 1841 (2nd ed.).
A. Michaelis, Der Parthenon, Leipzig 1871.
http://www-tc.pbs.org/
A. Michaelis, Aρχαίος νεώς, Jdl 1902, 12.
J. H. Middleton, Plans and Drawings of Athenian Buildings JHS, Suppl.3, 1900.
A. Milchhofer, Nachträgliche Betrachtungen über die drei Athenaheiligtiimer auf der Akropolis von Athen, Philologus 61, 1902, 441-446.
H. Mobius, Attische Architekturstudien, AM 1927, ιδιαιτ. 181-189 (βωμός Αθηνάς).
C. Nylander, Die sogenannten Mykenischen Saulenbasen auf der Akropolis zu Athen. Opuscula Atheniensia 4, 1962, 31-77.
F. C. Penrose, An Investigation of the Principles of the Athenian Architecture, London 1851 (1st ed.), 1888 (2nd ed.).
F. C. Penrose, On the Ancient Hecatompedon, JHS 12, 1891, 275-297.
E. Petersen, Die Burgtempel der Athenaia, Berlin 1907.
Β. Πετράκος, Η εν Αθήναις Αρχαιολογική Εταιρεία, Αθήναι 1987.
W. H. Plommer, The Archaic Acropolis, some Problems, JHS 80, 1960, 127-159.
F. Preibhofen, Zur Topographie der Akropolis, AA 1977, 74-84.
A. Raubitschek, Dedications from the Athenian Acropolis, Cambridge, Mass 1949.
H. Riemann, Der peisistratidische Athenatempel auf der Akropolis zu Athen, Mdl 3, 1950, 7-39.
L. Ross, Archäologische Aufsätze I, Leipzig 1855.
H. Schrader, Die Gorgonenakrotere und die ältesten Tempel der Athena auf der athenischen Akropolis, Jdl 43, 1928, 54-89.
H. Schrader, Die archaischen Marmorbildwerke der Akropolis, Frankfurt 1939.
W-H. Schuchhardt, Die Sima des alten Athenatempels der Akropolis, AM 60-61, 1935-36, 1-98.
G. P. Stevens et al., The Erechtheum, Cambridge, Mass 1927.
G. P. Stevens, The Setting of the Periclean Parthenon, Hesperia Suppl. 3, 1940.
G. P. Stevens, The Northeast Corner of the Parthenon, Hesperia 15, 1946, 1-26.
J. Stuart - N. Revett, The Antiquities of Athens II, 1787, 9.
E. Touloupa, Une gorgone en bronze de l'Acropole, BCH 93, 1969, 862-864.
http://www.pbs.org/
E. Touloupa, Early Bronze Sheets with Figured Scenes from the Acropolis, New Perspectives in Early Greek Art, A Symposium, 27-28 may 1988, Studies in the History of Art ,Vol. 32, (Washington) 1991.
J. Travlos, Bildlexikon zur Topographie des antiken Athen, Tübingen 1971.
A. Tschira, Die unfertigen Säulentrommein auf der Akropolis von Athen, Jdl 55, 1941, 242-261.
A. Tschira, Eine Tastung in der Cella des Parthenon, AA 1965, 402-328.
Ο. Walter, Die Parthenonfundamente und das Delphische Orakel, Anzeiger der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 89, 1952, 97-107.
G. Welter, Das Olympieion in Athen (I) AM 47,1922, 61-71.
B. Wesenberg, Wer erbaute den Parthenon? AM 97, 1982, 99-125
Th. Wiegand, Die archaische Poros - Architektur der Akropolis zu Athen, Kassel-Leipzig 1904.
E. Ziller, Über die ursprüngliche Existenz der Curvaturen des Parthenon, Zeitschrift für Bauwesen 15, 1865, 35-54.
W. Zschietzschmann, Peisistratos und die Akropolis, Klio 27, 1934, 209-217.
- Undoing past doings
Before the restoration team could begin, they had to take apart, block by block, and repair nearly every piece of the Parthenon. That's because early restorers, most notoriously a Greek engineer named Nikaloas Balanos who led restorations from the late 1800s to the mid-1900s, put column drums and whole blocks back in the wrong place. Even more damaging, Balanos used iron clamps like the one seen here to hold blocks together. The ancient Greeks had done the same, but they had coated their iron with lead to prevent rusting. Balanos's uncovered clamps corroded and expanded, cracking and even destroying the marble.
- Locating all original pieces
In order to create the most faithful restoration, the team has sought from the beginning to salvage whatever ancient marble blocks have survived. This has been easier said than done. Tens of thousands of original pieces exist, some scattered around the Acropolis, others around the world, and still others lost forever. Whatever pieces the team is missing they have to recreate.
- Cataloguing remains
Korres's team created a computer database of all original pieces. By entering, in some cases, over 50 criteria to identify each piece—among them height, width, slope, corrosion, cracking, stain marks, and even graffiti—they hoped the computer could aid them in finding each remnant's original position on the building. But often differences in the pieces are so subtle that they must abandon the computer and match fragments by eye.
- Determining where each piece goes
Although the Parthenon might appear to be geometrically straight and built from interchangeable parts, it is not. The ancient Greeks worked subtle curves into the columns, architraves, floors, and other architectural elements, possibly to make the building appear more "alive" or to counteract optical illusions of sagging that parallel lines (like roof and floor lines) can cause. As a result, each of the Parthenon's 70,000 pieces is unique and fits in only one place.
- Acquiring new marble
To replace original pieces that are missing, because they either have been looted and are now in museums around the world or have altogether disappeared, the team has turned to the very quarry the ancient Athenians used. Just 12 miles from the Acropolis, the quarry is known as Pentelicon. Scholars estimate that in the time of Pericles, the Athenian leader who spearheaded the Parthenon's construction, workers cut 100,000 tons of marble from Pentelicon. The quarry remains a rich source of marble even today.
- Shaping missing pieces
Before carving a new piece of marble to fill a gap, team members first fashion a plaster cast of the absent piece, like the brown cast seen to the far right here. As they have in many instances throughout this project, they then turn to an ancient tool and technique. They use an antique mason's device called a pantograph, seen here, to record the three-dimensional shape of the cast. They then painstakingly transfer that shape, point by point, to the new marble.
- Carving new pieces
As in ancient times, the Parthenon workplace today is less a construction site and more a sculptor's studio. Master stonemasons do all carving by hand. Their expert skills are needed, because sometimes the difference between a piece fitting perfectly and not comes down to just a tenth of a millimeter, about the thickness of a human hair. Amazingly, the ancient Greeks themselves achieved this level of precision, in part by using highly sophisticated tools. Korres, by studying tool marks in old marble, has reconstructed ancient chisels and other tools that he believes were, in their day, sharper and more durable than similar tools today.
- Finishing new marble
To level a new surface, the team's masons again turn to an age-old technique. They sprinkle sand onto the surface, then use a metal smoothing plate to work out imperfections. The plate is an ancient invention, its modern counterpart based on stone plates found on the Acropolis. Korres believes that those early plates could grind to a precision of one-twentieth of a millimeter. Today, final sanding of distinctive features such as the column flutes seen here is done by hand using sandpaper.
- Mating two pieces
When it's time to fit a newly fashioned piece of marble with a broken or irregularly shaped ancient one, the team once again borrows from Periclean times. To ensure that the new piece exactly snuggles against the old, they coat the inner surface of the new marble with red clay. They gently push the two pieces together, then pull them apart. Points on the new piece that turn white—that is, where the clay is scraped off—indicate spots on the new slab that need fine-tuning. The operation is repeated dozens of times until the new marble precisely matches the ancient surface.
- Aligning the drums
Stacking and aligning column drums is another challenge. When Korres's crew separates two original drums for the first time in 2,500 years, they discover the ancients' ingenious solution. When mating two drums, the Athenians carved two pieces of cedar, one fitting inside the other like a key into a lock. These were set into holes cut in the center of each drum; when one drum was lowered onto the other, the cedar ensured proper alignment. Here, architect Cathy Paraschi displays three pairs: an original set (at left, still smelling of cedar), a modern copy (stacked at center), and a pair made out of titanium for use in today's restoration.
- Using modern equipment
Of course, Korres and his team rely on many pieces of modern equipment as well, everything from soaring cranes to lift multi-ton capitals to the top of columns, to diamond-tipped saws to cut through fresh marble in the quarry. But without the ancient tools and techniques, the project arguably could not reach the level of perfection that the ancient Athenians achieved.
- Restoring a ruin
When the Acropolis Restoration Project began 30 years ago, Manolis Korres and his colleagues could have chosen to approximate the Parthenon's original state, adorning it with sculptures and friezes, and painting it in vivid colors. Instead, they decided to preserve what has survived for two and a half thousand years—a majestic ruin, a witness to what we needlessly destroy, and the beauty and perfection that we can create.
Sources / Bibliography / Photos
Αρχ. Δελτ., Αρχαιολογικό Δελτίο. AA, Archäologischer Anzeiger. AJA, American Journal of Archaeology. AM, Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Athenische Abteilung. BCH, Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique. Hesperia, Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens. Jdl, Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts- JHS, Journal of Hellenic Studies. Mdl, Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts.
G. Beckel, Akropolisfragen, Χαριστήριον εις A. K. Ορλάνδον, t. 3,1967-68, 329.
E. Berger (επιμελ.), Parthenon-Kongress, Basel 1982, Mainz 1984.
C. Bötticher, Bericht über die Untersuchungen auf der Akropolis von Athen im Frühjahre 1862, Berlin 1863.
I. Beyer, Die Reliefgiebel des Alten Athena-Tempels der Akropolis. AA 1974, 639-651.
I. Beyer, Die Datierung der großen Reliefgiebel des Alten Athenatempels der Akropolis. A 1977, 44-74.
J. S. Boersma, Athenian Building Policy from 561-0 to 405-4 B.C., Groningen 1970.
J. A. Bundgaard, The Parthenon and the Mycenean city on the Heights, Copenhagen, 1976.
E. Buschor, Burglöwen, AM 47,1922, 92-105 (βλ. κ.α. τ.ιδ. 53-60 και 106-109).
E. Buschor, Die Tonddächer der Akropolis, Berlin-Leipzig, 1929-1933.
W. B. Dinsmoor, Supplementary Excavation at the Entrance of the Acropolis, 7925, AJA 33, 1929, 101-102.
W. B. Dinsmoor, The Burning of the Opisthodomos at Athens, AJA 36, 1932, 143-172, 307-326.
http://www.eie.gr/
W. B. Dinsmoor, The Date of the Older Parthenon, AJA 38,1934, 408- 438.
W. B. Dinsmoor, The Hekatompedon on the Athenian Akropolis, AJA 51,1947, 109-151.
W. B. Dinsmoor, The Architecture of Ancient Greece, London, 1950.
W. Dörpfeld, Der Alte Athenatempel auf der Akropolis zu Athen, AM 10, 1885, 275-277; 11, 1886, 337-351; 12, 1887, 25-61, 190-211; 15, 1890, 153-187; 22, 1897, 159-178.
http://www.yppo.gr/
W. Dörpfeld, Die Zeit des älteren Parthenon, AM 27, 1902, 379-416.
W. Dörpfeld, Das Hekatompedon in Athen, Jdl 34, 1919, 1-40.
W. Dörpfeld, Parthenon I, II, III, AJA 39,1935, 497-507.
H. Drerup, Parthenon und Vorparthenon - Zum Stand der Kontroverse, Antike Kunst, 1981, 21-38.
B. Graef -E. Langlotz, Die antiken Vasen von der Akropolis zu Athen, Berlin 1925 (I), 1933 (II).
G. Gruben, Die Tempel der Griechen, München 1976, 163-178.
http://users.sch.gr/izogakis
R. Heberdey, Altattische Porosskulptur, Wien 1919.
C. J. Herington, Athena Parthenos and Athena Polios, Manchester 1955.
A. Hess, Der Opisthodom als Tresor und die Akropolistopographie, Klio 28, 1935, 21-84.
B. H. Hill, The Older Parthenon, AJA 16, 1912, 556.
L. B. Holland, Erechtheum Papers, AJA 28, 1924, 1-23, 142-169, 402-434.
Σπ. Ιακωβίδης, Η μυκηναϊκή Ακρόπολη των Αθηνών, Αθήναι 1962.
O. Jahn - A. Michaelis, Arx Athenarum a Pausania descripta, Bonn 1901.
K. Jeppesen, The Theory of the Alternative Erechtheion, Aarhus 1987.
W. Judeich, Topographic von Athen, München 1931.
Π. Καββαδία - G. Kawerau, Η ανασκαφή της Ακροπόλεως, Αθήναι 1907.
Α. Καλογεροπούλου - Μ. Φιλίπ-Προύνη, Αρχαιολογική εφημερίς, Ερευτήριον πρώτης και δευτέρας περιόδου 1837-1874, τομ. Α, Αθήναι 1973.
Α. Κόκκου, Η μέριμνα για τις αρχαιότητες και τα πρώτα μνημεία, Αθήναι 1977.
Ν. Κοντολέων, Το Ερεχθείον ως οικοδόμημα χθονίας λατρείας, Αθήναι 1949.
Μ. Κορρές - Χ. Μπούρας, Μελέτη αποκαταστάσεως του Παρθενώνος, Αθήναι 1983.
M. Korres, Wilhelm Dörpfelds Forschungen zum Vorparthenon und Parthenon, AM 108, 1993, 59-78.
Β. Λαμπρινουδάκης, Οικοδομικά προγράμματα στην αρχαία Αθήνα, Αθήνα 1983.
W. M. Leake, The Topography of Athens, London 1821 (1st ed.), 1841 (2nd ed.).
A. Michaelis, Der Parthenon, Leipzig 1871.
http://www-tc.pbs.org/
A. Michaelis, Aρχαίος νεώς, Jdl 1902, 12.
J. H. Middleton, Plans and Drawings of Athenian Buildings JHS, Suppl.3, 1900.
A. Milchhofer, Nachträgliche Betrachtungen über die drei Athenaheiligtiimer auf der Akropolis von Athen, Philologus 61, 1902, 441-446.
H. Mobius, Attische Architekturstudien, AM 1927, ιδιαιτ. 181-189 (βωμός Αθηνάς).
C. Nylander, Die sogenannten Mykenischen Saulenbasen auf der Akropolis zu Athen. Opuscula Atheniensia 4, 1962, 31-77.
F. C. Penrose, An Investigation of the Principles of the Athenian Architecture, London 1851 (1st ed.), 1888 (2nd ed.).
F. C. Penrose, On the Ancient Hecatompedon, JHS 12, 1891, 275-297.
E. Petersen, Die Burgtempel der Athenaia, Berlin 1907.
Β. Πετράκος, Η εν Αθήναις Αρχαιολογική Εταιρεία, Αθήναι 1987.
W. H. Plommer, The Archaic Acropolis, some Problems, JHS 80, 1960, 127-159.
F. Preibhofen, Zur Topographie der Akropolis, AA 1977, 74-84.
A. Raubitschek, Dedications from the Athenian Acropolis, Cambridge, Mass 1949.
H. Riemann, Der peisistratidische Athenatempel auf der Akropolis zu Athen, Mdl 3, 1950, 7-39.
L. Ross, Archäologische Aufsätze I, Leipzig 1855.
H. Schrader, Die Gorgonenakrotere und die ältesten Tempel der Athena auf der athenischen Akropolis, Jdl 43, 1928, 54-89.
H. Schrader, Die archaischen Marmorbildwerke der Akropolis, Frankfurt 1939.
W-H. Schuchhardt, Die Sima des alten Athenatempels der Akropolis, AM 60-61, 1935-36, 1-98.
G. P. Stevens et al., The Erechtheum, Cambridge, Mass 1927.
G. P. Stevens, The Setting of the Periclean Parthenon, Hesperia Suppl. 3, 1940.
G. P. Stevens, The Northeast Corner of the Parthenon, Hesperia 15, 1946, 1-26.
J. Stuart - N. Revett, The Antiquities of Athens II, 1787, 9.
E. Touloupa, Une gorgone en bronze de l'Acropole, BCH 93, 1969, 862-864.
http://www.pbs.org/
E. Touloupa, Early Bronze Sheets with Figured Scenes from the Acropolis, New Perspectives in Early Greek Art, A Symposium, 27-28 may 1988, Studies in the History of Art ,Vol. 32, (Washington) 1991.
J. Travlos, Bildlexikon zur Topographie des antiken Athen, Tübingen 1971.
A. Tschira, Die unfertigen Säulentrommein auf der Akropolis von Athen, Jdl 55, 1941, 242-261.
A. Tschira, Eine Tastung in der Cella des Parthenon, AA 1965, 402-328.
Ο. Walter, Die Parthenonfundamente und das Delphische Orakel, Anzeiger der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 89, 1952, 97-107.
G. Welter, Das Olympieion in Athen (I) AM 47,1922, 61-71.
B. Wesenberg, Wer erbaute den Parthenon? AM 97, 1982, 99-125
Th. Wiegand, Die archaische Poros - Architektur der Akropolis zu Athen, Kassel-Leipzig 1904.
E. Ziller, Über die ursprüngliche Existenz der Curvaturen des Parthenon, Zeitschrift für Bauwesen 15, 1865, 35-54.
W. Zschietzschmann, Peisistratos und die Akropolis, Klio 27, 1934, 209-217.
Amazing :)
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